- 9 hours ago

Almost Ainu: The Messy Position of the Emishi in Japanese History and Memory

The Emishi were an ethnic group that lived in the northern reaches of the Japanese archipelago, specifically the Tōhoku region, and frequently clashed with the expanding Yamato state starting in the seventh century. While their exact origins are debated, the Nihon Shoki, Japan's oldest anthology of official history, records events involving the Emishi, including their interactions and conflicts with the Japanese Imperial Court.

Relationship with the Ainu

Some scholars believe the Emishi are related to the ancestors of the Ainu people. However, the Emishi who lived in Honshu engaged in different subsistence activities than the Ainu in Hokkaido, suggesting cultural distinctions between the groups. For example, the Emishi practiced wet rice cultivation and horse breeding, which were not common among the Ainu in Hokkaido.

pictorial biography of Prince Shotoku written around 1323 — The Emishi Surrender to Prince Shotoku

Conflicts with the Japanese

The Emishi were frequently at odds with the Japanese, who sought to expand their control northward. The Japanese governments viewed the Emishi as "barbarians" who needed to be subdued and assimilated. This historical tension is reflected in the narrative of the folklore character Yashaki, popular in Akita Prefecture. This narrative portrays the Japanese general Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, a central figure in the Japanese conquest of northern Honshu, negatively, contrasting with the traditional view of him in Japanese society.

Lifestyle

According to the Nihon Shoki, the Emishi subsisted on hunting, gathering, fishing, and agriculture, including wet rice cultivation. They also bred horses, potentially influenced by continental practices. Their yearly cycle revolved around summer and winter, with revolts against the Imperial Court often coinciding with the transitions between these seasons.

Depiction in Literature

The Emishi are often depicted in Japanese literature and historical records through a Sinocentric lens. For example, Kūkai, a Japanese Buddhist monk, described them using Chinese terms for peripheral barbarians, highlighting their differences from the Yamato Japanese in terms of appearance, customs, and governance. He characterized them as "uncivilized" for their reliance on hunting and gathering, contrasting this with the agricultural practices of the Yamato Japanese.

Cultural Characteristics of the Emishi

While many sources provide glimpses into the Emishi people and their history, information about their specific cultural characteristics is limited. Much of what is known about the Emishi comes from the perspective of the Japanese, who often viewed them as outsiders and potential threats. This perspective can make it challenging to discern objective cultural descriptions from biased observations. However, by carefully examining the available information, we can piece together some insights into the cultural practices of the Emishi.

Emishi Village — AI generated depiction of Rural Japanese village

Subsistence and Lifestyle

Hunting and Gathering: The Emishi relied heavily on hunting, fishing, and gathering for their subsistence. The Nihon Shoki describes them as subsisting on these activities, particularly hunting. This suggests a strong connection to their natural environment and a deep understanding of the local flora and fauna. Kūkai, in his writings, also points to hunting as a defining characteristic of the Emishi, contrasting their lifestyle with the agricultural practices of the Yamato Japanese.
Agriculture: Contrary to Kūkai's claims that the Emishi did not engage in agriculture, archaeological evidence suggests that they did practice some forms of cultivation, including wet rice agriculture, at least in certain regions and time periods. This indicates a degree of adaptability and a willingness to adopt new practices, potentially influenced by contact with the Japanese. However, it's important to note that the extent to which agriculture played a role in Emishi society compared to hunting and gathering is still debated by scholars.
Horse Breeding: The Emishi were noted for their use of horses, which was likely influenced by practices from mainland Asia. This suggests connections to broader cultural networks and a capacity for cultural exchange. Horse breeding could have had a significant impact on Emishi society, potentially influencing their mobility, warfare tactics, and trade relations. The relation between the Emishi and horses has not been a consistent characteristic of their culture.

Material Culture

Clothing: Unlike the Yamato Japanese, who adopted Chinese-inspired clothing styles, the Emishi are described as wearing clothing made from animal skins. Kūkai notes that they "don skins made of boar and deer," further emphasizing their difference from the more "civilized" Japanese. A picture scroll depicting the Emishi shows them wearing feather and fur shawls, hoods, and headbands, attire not typically found in Ainu culture. While the accuracy of these depictions is difficult to ascertain, they provide valuable insights into how the Emishi were perceived and possibly how they distinguished themselves through their attire.
Weapons: The Emishi are frequently mentioned in the context of warfare, highlighting their use of weapons like bows and arrows, spears, swords, and knives. The Nihon Shoki describes the Emishi using poisoned arrows, a detail that might reflect the Japanese perception of the Emishi as dangerous and skilled warriors. A scroll depicting the life of Prince Shotoku, created in 1323, offers us depictions of the Emishi. The scroll corroborates the use of bows and arrows, adding that their spears were decorated with cloth. These details, while limited, offer a glimpse into the Emishi's material culture and their techniques of warfare.

Social Structure and Beliefs:

The sources provide very little information about the Emishi's social structure, governance, or belief systems. The Nihon Shoki mentions "chiefs of the ancient Emishi," suggesting some form of leadership hierarchy within their communities. However, the specifics of their social organization remain unclear.
Kūkai characterizes the Emishi as lacking the Confucian values of obedience and loyalty that were central to the Yamato Japanese worldview. He frames this perceived lack as evidence of their "uncivilized" nature, highlighting the cultural chasm that existed between the two groups. However, it is crucial to recognize that Kūkai's perspective was heavily influenced by his own cultural and religious background.

Relationship to the Ainu

The sources and our previous discussion explored the complex relationship between the Emishi and the Ainu. While some scholars suggest a direct ancestral link between the two groups, others argue that the Emishi in Honshu developed distinct cultural practices due to their geographical location and interactions with the Japanese.

Understanding the cultural characteristics of the Emishi is a complex endeavor, hampered by limited and often biased source material. However, by piecing together the available fragments of information, we can begin to paint a picture of a people who were deeply connected to their natural environment, skilled in hunting and warfare, and capable of cultural exchange and adaptation. Further research and archaeological discoveries are needed to provide a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of this fascinating and often overlooked group in Japanese history.