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Dairy in Japan

Oct 26, 2024

Cows in Japan

For many people in Japan today - Milk retains a sense of the foreign, or memories of school lunches. This may be because the majority of milk production today is in Hokkaido, it can be because it was Dutch Learning and Meiji government support that was the catalyst for widespread dairy consumption in Modern Japan. Milk has been incorporated into Japanese society and culture as a modern product, but the roots of dairy production in Japan date back to the Asuka Period. The History of Milk is one way we can explore and gain new insight and appreciation for the development of life in the Japanese archipelago. 



The history of milk in Japan is a fascinating journey that spans over a thousand years, from ancient rituals and medicinal practices to its modern-day role in everyday life. Unlike the Western world, where dairy has long been a staple, Japan’s relationship with milk has been anything but straightforward. It began as a luxury for the elite, tied to Buddhism and medical treatments, only to disappear for centuries before resurfacing as a symbol of modernization during the Meiji era. 

Today, milk has found a place in Japan’s unique culinary culture, but its path from ancient times to modern kitchens tells a story of cultural adaptation, and shifting values. Whether revered for its health benefits or critiqued for its foreign origins, milk has played an important role in Japan’s evolution, revealing much about the nation’s broader interaction with the world.


Dairy Pioneers


The early period of dairy in Japan, spanning from the 7th to 12th centuries, is characterized by the introduction, limited consumption, and eventual decline of dairy products. This period saw dairy primarily associated with medicine and Buddhist rituals, with its consumption largely confined to the elite.


Introduction and Initial Perception 

Dairy arrived in Japan during the mid-seventh century and was likely transmitted from China. The first recorded instance involves Zenna 善那, whose father originated from China, presenting milk to Emperor Kōtoku. Zenna's subsequent appointment as the “Commissioner of Medicine in Yamato” highlights the initial association of dairy with medicinal properties.

Mokkan - Artifacts from Japan - Wooden Documents
Mokkan (木簡) - Wooden Documents: The earliest recorded instance of Dairy Products appears on these artifacts. Photo: Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties (6ABOBH80000008)

  • Dairy as Medicine:

    • The perception of dairy as medicine stemmed from Chinese influence. Chinese materia medica texts, such as the "Xinxiu bencao" (659), extensively documented the medicinal applications of various dairy products. For instance, tihu, a refined ghee, was prescribed for ailments like pathogenic influences and numb qi.

    • While specific medicinal uses in Japan are not explicitly detailed in the sources, the strong influence of Chinese medical knowledge suggests that dairy was likely employed for similar purposes.

    • This medicinal view is further corroborated by the "Engi shiki" (927), a collection of Japanese legal and religious procedures. This document places the "Overseer of Milk" within the Bureau of Medicine, indicating that dairy production and distribution were overseen for medicinal purposes.



Dairy in Buddhist Rituals

Alongside its medicinal role, dairy found a place in Buddhist rituals, a practice inherited from China and ultimately inspired by Indian Buddhist traditions. In India, dairy held a significant position as a staple food and played a vital role in rituals. Chinese Buddhism, as evidenced by the commentary on the "Vairocanābhisam. bodhi," actively sought to emulate Indian culinary practices, incorporating dishes like "milk porridge" and "yogurt rice" as offerings.

Although the sources lack direct evidence of dairy consumption in Japanese Buddhist rituals, the presence of such practices in China, coupled with the documented use of milk in Japan, strongly suggests that dairy was likely integrated into Japanese Buddhist practices during this era.

  • Types of Dairy Products:

    • The early period witnessed the production and consumption of various dairy products in Japan. "So," (蘇, originally 酥) a type of cheese, was made from cow's milk and primarily consumed by the emperor and aristocracy. (There was a revival of it during COVID) 

    • The "Ishinpō" 医心方 medical treatise (934) lists a variety of dairy products, including "raku" (possibly yogurt), "so" (cheese), and "daigo" (likely a type of milk skin), further demonstrating the range of dairy items available, at least among the upper classes.


Consumption Primarily by the Elite

Evidence suggests that dairy consumption during this era was largely restricted to the aristocracy. The "Engi Shiki" outlines regulations for the supply of butter to the imperial court, highlighting its consumption within elite circles. The association of dairy with medicine and Buddhist rituals, both practices closely tied to the elite, further supports this conclusion. The production of cheese (so) being significant, primarily for consumption by the emperor and aristocracy, adds further weight to the notion that dairy was a luxury enjoyed primarily by the upper echelons of society.


Reasons for Limited Adoption Beyond the Elite

Despite the presence of a dairy industry, wider adoption beyond the aristocracy remained limited. Several factors likely contributed to this restricted consumption:

  • Logistical Challenges: The highly perishable nature of dairy products presented logistical obstacles for transportation and storage, potentially limiting access for those outside the elite who lacked the necessary infrastructure.

  • Economic Factors: Dairy production was likely relatively expensive, further restricting its availability to those with the means to afford it.

  • Natural Topography: Japan is inherently mountainous and the nature of the landscape does not lend itself hospitable to dairy farming.



Decline of the Industry

Towards the end of the Heian period, the dairy industry in Japan experienced a decline. This decline coincided with the diminishing power of the aristocracy, who were the primary consumers of dairy. The growing influence of Buddhist philosophy, advocating the avoidance of animal products, might have also contributed to the industry's decline during this period. Dairy was largely absent from Japanese diets for an extended period, resurfacing only after World War II.

Despite its limited reach beyond the elite, the early period of dairy in Japan demonstrates its significance.


Middle Period (13th - 19th Centuries)

  • Limited Production: Dairy production and consumption were scarce during this period.

  • Persistence in Buddhist Practices: While dairy was scarce, its symbolic and medicinal value persisted in Buddhist literature.

  • Reintroduction of Cattle: During the Edo period (1603-1868), white Indian cattle (Brahmans) were reintroduced, primarily used as milk cows.

  • "Hakugyuraku" as Medicine: "white cattle cheese" or "white cattle dairy" A product called "Hakugyuraku," made by boiling milk with sugar and drying it, was valued as medicine and nutritious food, mainly for the elite.



Modern Dairy in Japan: Growth, Diversification, and Challenges


Milk bottle overlooking Japan
Japanese Milk

The modern period of dairy in Japan, starting in the late 19th century, witnessed a remarkable resurgence of dairy production and consumption after centuries of limited use. The Meiji Restoration (1868) ushered in an era of modernization and Westernization, paving the way for dairy to become a staple in the Japanese diet. This period is marked by significant government intervention, fluctuating consumption patterns, and a continuous interplay between traditional Japanese values and Western influences.


Early Efforts and Government Promotion

The reintroduction of dairy into mainstream Japanese society can be traced back to the early Meiji period. In 1863, Tomekichi Maeda learned milking and processing techniques from a Dutchman and established Japan's first milk processing and retail business in Yokohama. Recognizing the nutritional value of milk and its potential to boost the agricultural sector, the Meiji government actively promoted dairy farming, particularly in Hokkaido. These early efforts aimed to establish a domestic dairy industry and incorporate milk into the Japanese diet.


Milk as a Symbol of Modernity and Health

Dairy products, particularly milk, became symbols of modernization and a "civilized" lifestyle. This association was reinforced by translated Western medical books that extolled the health benefits of milk, particularly for children and invalids. These books advocated for cow's milk as a substitute for breast milk and as a valuable weaning food. The perception of milk as a health food gained further traction with the publication of Japanese medical books and parenting guides that echoed the recommendations of Western sources. Gentatsu Tanaka's "Gyūnyū Kakke Chikenroku" (1878) detailed the use of cow's milk for treating beriberi, a prevalent disease at the time, further solidifying milk's image as a health-promoting food.


Expanding Production and Distribution

Milk production grew steadily. In Tokyo, the number of milking businesses increased from a handful in 1871 to 329 by 1900, accompanied by a significant rise in milk output. This growth was driven by factors such as government encouragement for new industries, former samurai seeking alternative livelihoods, and a rising demand for milk as a modern and healthy beverage. Initially, distribution was localized and challenging due to milk's perishability. Milk shops were often located in city centers for easy delivery. The milk was sold in measures from sodden barrels, later transitioning to tin cans and glass bottles. However, the lack of proper hygiene and quality control posed significant challenges, leading to issues like spoiled milk and adulteration.


Safety Concerns and Regulatory Measures

As dairy production and consumption expanded, concerns about hygiene and safety became prominent. Despite initial efforts to regulate the industry through measures like the Milking Operators Regulations of 1878, the problem of poor hygiene practices persisted. The sale of fraudulent milk, including watered-down, spoiled, or defective milk, became a widespread issue, leading to a public outcry. In response, the government enacted the Milk Business Control Regulations in 1900, a landmark legislation that revolutionized the Japanese dairy industry. These regulations mandated the use of glass bottles for milk delivery, established standards for milk composition (specific gravity, fat content), and outlined requirements for the construction of milking facilities. This legislation dramatically improved hygiene and quality control, further boosting consumer confidence and driving the popularity of milk.


Shifting Trends and the Anti-Milk Movement

The early 20th century saw milk's integration into Japanese homes. Keitaro Tsuno, a prominent figure in dairy science, published "Katei-Muke Gyūnyū Ryōri" (1921), the first Japanese cookbook featuring milk-based recipes. This marked a shift from milk being solely a medicinal drink to an ingredient in home cooking. However, the growing acceptance of milk was accompanied by the emergence of an "anti-milk" sentiment. This counter-movement was fueled by a resurgence of traditional Japanese health practices that emphasized plant-based diets. Proponents of this view used the term "white blood" to express their aversion to milk, a term ironically derived from a translated book that intended to highlight milk's nutritional benefits. This period illustrates the ongoing tension between embracing Western practices and preserving traditional Japanese values.


Wartime Disruptions and Post-War Resurgence

World War II significantly impacted the Japanese dairy industry. Military demand for casein, a milk protein used in aircraft adhesives, led to the prioritization of milk for military purposes. The Milk and Dairy Products Distribution Control Regulations of 1940 restricted milk access, reserving it only for infants and invalids. This period demonstrates how wartime needs can drastically alter the availability and consumption of essential food items. Following the war, Japan faced food shortages, and the Japanese diet heavily relied on potatoes and vegetables. However, the dairy industry steadily recovered, driven by government initiatives, school lunch programs, and a growing awareness of the nutritional benefits of milk, particularly for children experiencing stunted growth due to wartime malnutrition.


Growth, Diversification, and Continued Government Involvement

The post-war era witnessed a boom in dairy production and consumption, with annual production exceeding pre-war peaks by 1953. Per capita consumption increased tenfold within two decades after the war, establishing milk as a "new common national food" in Japan. This growth was accompanied by diversification. In 1952, homogenized milk, enriched with Vitamin D for better calcium absorption, was introduced and became highly popular. This period also saw innovations in packaging, with the introduction of milk cartons in the 1960s, marking the beginning of direct sales from production regions to consumers. Government support continued to play a vital role in shaping the industry. The Ministerial Ordinance on Milk and Milk Products Concerning Compositional Standards, etc., established in 1951, provided a comprehensive framework for regulating milk and dairy products, ensuring quality and safety.


Evolving Consumption Patterns and the Health-Conscious Era

From the 1970s, yogurt and cheese gained wider acceptance in Japan, becoming regular features in Japanese households. The introduction of plain yogurt at the 1970 Osaka Expo sparked research and development, leading to the launch of Japan's first plain yogurt in 1971. This marked a shift towards consuming yogurt for its authentic flavor and health benefits, despite initial resistance due to its tartness.

Cheese consumption also increased, propelled by trends in the confectionery sector. Cheesecake became a major hit in the 1970s, popularizing cream cheese and cottage cheese. The tiramisu boom in the 1990s further solidified the presence of cheese in the Japanese diet. This period showcases how culinary trends and the adoption of foreign dishes can significantly influence the consumption of specific food items.

The rapid economic growth in the post-war era, while contributing to dietary diversification and improved nutrition, also led to concerns about overeating and lifestyle-related diseases. The 1970s saw the emergence of the concept of "ishoku dōgen" 医食同源(Medicine and Food have the same origins), promoting a holistic approach to health and sparking a trend towards natural foods. This period also saw the rise of fad diets, reflecting a growing awareness of the connection between diet and health.


Renewed Criticism and the Persistence of Anti-Milk Sentiments

As health concerns gained prominence, milk, once a symbol of modernization and health, faced renewed criticism. The anti-milk movement resurfaced, associating milk with the negative aspects of a Westernized diet. Publications like "Gyūnyū o Nomu to Gan ni Naru?" (Does drinking milk cause cancer?) by Keiichi Morishita (published in the 1980s) fueled this sentiment, blaming milk for contributing to obesity and lifestyle diseases. This resurgence of anti-milk views underscores the complex and evolving relationship between food, health, and cultural identity in Japan.


Present Status and Future Outlook

The modern period of dairy in Japan has resulted in a thriving industry, with Holstein cows dominating milk production. The country produces a wide variety of dairy products, meeting a significant portion of domestic demand. However, per capita consumption of dairy products in Japan remains lower than in many Western countries.

Factors like an aging farming population, environmental concerns, and competition from imports pose challenges for the Japanese dairy industry. However, ongoing research into the functional benefits of milk components, the development of innovative dairy products, and consumer education efforts focused on incorporating dairy into traditional Japanese cuisine may hold the key to future growth and wider acceptance.

The journey of dairy in Japan is a testament to the country's ability to adapt and integrate foreign influences while grappling with its own cultural values and health concerns. The industry has overcome numerous challenges, from initial aversion to milk to wartime disruptions, ultimately establishing itself as a significant contributor to the Japanese diet and economy. However, as Japan navigates an increasingly globalized food landscape, the future of its dairy industry will depend on its ability to address emerging consumer preferences, health concerns, and evolving cultural perceptions of dairy products.



References and Further Reading: 



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